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OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to compare the bleeding profiles of conjugated equine estrogens 0.625 mg in combination with 2.5 mg medroxyprogesterone acetate (Prempro; CEE/MPA group), the most widely prescribed continuous combined hormone replacement therapy (CCHRT) in the United States, with 17beta-estradiol 1 mg combined with 0.5 mg norethindrone acetate (Activella; E(2)/NETA group), a newly available CCHRT preparation, over a 6-month period.

DESIGN: This study was a prospective, randomized, multicenter, double-blind, controlled trial. A total of 438 healthy postmenopausal women were randomized and received treatment (Activella n = 217, Prempro n = 221). Each woman recorded bleeding diaries daily. Total cholesterol, triglycerides, and endometrial biopsies were obtained at screening and end-of-trial visits.

RESULTS: The more favorable bleeding profile was found in the E(2)/NETA (Activella) group. The differences in bleeding patterns were most marked in the first 3 months of treatment in women who were 1-2 years from last menses, with no bleeding in 71.4% vs. 40.0%; ( p = 0.005) and with no bleeding and no spotting in 54.8% vs. 17.1%; (p = 0.001). Triglycerides fell by 8.5% in the E(2)/NETA group and increased by 11.7% in the CEE/MPA group (p < 0.001). Total cholesterol declined by 9.1% and 6.9%, respectively.

CONCLUSION: The most important factor in the continuation of HRT is uterine bleeding. E(2)/NETA has significantly less bleeding than the most commonly prescribed CCHRT CEE/MPA, therefore; E(2)/NETA should be associated with improved continuation rates. The patient taking E(2)/NETA will receive effective treatment for her menopausal symptoms with less bleeding.

We sought to evaluate two common fluids placed in the pelvis after pelvic surgery for their ability to remain in the pelvis for a time thought adequate for prevention of adhesions. Thirteen patients undergoing operative laparoscopy were randomized to receive 250 ml 32% dextran 70 (Hyskon), 250 ml lactated Ringer's solution, or no fluid (control) at the end of surgery. Serial transvaginal ultrasonograms were obtained at 1 hr, 3 hr, 6 hr, 24 hr, 96 hr (4 days), and 168 hr (7 days) after surgery. Patients were asked about side effects of fluid instillation. The volume of lactated Ringer's solution declined rapidly after instillation, with no significant difference from control at 24 hr (12 ml versus 7 ml). The volume of Hyskon did not decline rapidly by 24 hr and remained higher than the volume in controls or those receiving lactated Ringer's solution (188 ml, P = 0.003). Although the volume of Hyskon remained higher than that of lactated Ringer's solution or fluid volume in control patients by days 4 and 7, this difference did not reach statistical significance (45 ml versus 7 ml and 14 ml respectively, P = 0.39, on day 4). Patients in all groups noted abdominal pain. One patient who received Hyskon developed severe vulvar edema and another developed dyspnea. We conclude that the volume of Hyskon in the peritoneal cavity after laparoscopy does not decline as rapidly as does that of lactated Ringer's solution; however, significant side effects may limit its usefulness. Transvaginal ultrasonography is useful in monitoring fluids placed in the pelvis for prevention of adhesions.

OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to evaluate the safety and efficacy of a continuous daily regimen of levonorgestrel (LNG) 90 microg/ethinyl estradiol (EE) 20 microg (continuous LNG/EE).

METHODS: Healthy women aged 18-49 years with regular menstrual cycles for 3 months enrolled in this single-treatment open-label study and took one pill of LNG 90 microg/EE 20 microg daily for 12 months.

RESULTS: For the 2134 subjects enrolled, the Pearl Index method failure was 1.26, and user failure was 0.34. While on Pill Pack 13, 58.7% of subjects reported amenorrhea and 79.0% reported absence of bleeding. Overall, the number of bleeding and spotting days per pill pack declined progressively. Adverse events and discontinuations were comparable to those reported for cyclic oral contraceptive (OC) regimens, except for higher rates in those related to uterine bleeding.

CONCLUSIONS: Continuous LNG/EE demonstrated a good safety profile and efficacy similar to cyclic OCs. The regimen continuously inhibited menses, increased the incidence of amenorrhea over time and, except for a subset of women, decreased the number of bleeding and spotting days.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the effect of free T levels on sexual function during the natural traverse of menopause. Other psychosocial variables, which may also contribute to change in sexual function, are studied-including participant's job satisfaction, satisfaction with financial resources, confidence in ability to manage symptoms, stressful life events, exercise, body image, and quality of personal relationships.

DESIGN: Prospective clinical study.

SETTING: Clinical research center, university hospital.

PATIENT(S): Fifty-seven women between the ages of 45 and 55 years were enrolled at the beginning of the study. Thirty-seven women completed all but the final measurement of free T and 23 completed all aspects of the study at year 1 and year 5.

INTERVENTION(S): Questionnaires were administered and blood samples obtained in year 1 and year 5.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Free T, sexual satisfaction, and other psychosocial variables.

RESULT(S): Exercise is the only variable significantly associated with sexual satisfaction. There was a lack of association between free T and sexual satisfaction both at year 1 and year 5.

CONCLUSION(S): Focus on the hormonal aspects of menopause has promoted a disregard of other important psychosocial factors affecting sexual function. This study shows no correlation between T levels and sexual function, whereas exercise is clearly associated with sexual satisfaction. A key area for future research is the effect of lifestyle changes on sexual function in menopausal women.

To determine the effect of perceived infertility-related stress on IVF outcome, all couples undergoing their first cycle of IVF were administered the Fertility Problem Inventory from May 2002 and April 2005 at our institution. Couples who conceived during their first cycle of IVF had significantly higher measures of need for parenthood and loss of sexual enjoyment, compared with couples who did not conceive. Couples who achieved ongoing pregnancies had higher scores on measures of a negative view of a child-free lifestyle, need for parenthood, and total stress than those who did not.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a continuous daily regimen of levonorgestrel (LNG) 90 micro g/ethinyl estradiol (EE) 20 micro g on endometrial histology.

METHODS: This was a substudy of a large phase 3 trial conducted in six sites in North America. Healthy and sexually active women aged between 18 and 49 years took LNG 90 micro g/EE 20 micro g daily for 1 year. Results from endometrial biopsies performed at pretreatment baseline and those after at least 6 months of treatment were compared. RESULTS: Of the 146 participants, 93 had a baseline biopsy and completed at least six pill packs. Before treatment, 56 subjects (60%) had an endometrial biopsy with findings classified as "weakly proliferative or proliferative." During the last on-therapy visit, 48 subjects (52%) had an endometrium categorized as "other," which included primarily an inactive or benign endometrium (n=42). No hyperplasia or malignancy was observed during the study.

CONCLUSION: The results of a 1-year continuous regimen of LNG 90 micro g/EE 20 micro g were shown to have a good endometrial safety profile.

OBJECTIVE: Recent studies have shown changes in coagulation factors, suggesting an increased risk of thrombotic events, in women on progestin-containing contraceptives. To investigate this, we studied the effects of injectable depomedroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA), given as a contraceptive, on coagulation and inflammation markers.

DESIGN: Prospective nonrandomized study.

SETTING: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Vermont College of Medicine.

PATIENT(S): In this substudy of subjects undergoing a phase III trial comparing IM and SC DMPA, 14 healthy reproductive-age women were randomly assigned to receive either IM or SC DMPA every 3 months during a pharmaceutical trial.

INTERVENTION(S): All subjects had blood samples obtained at baseline and 6 and 12 months.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): D-Dimer, C-reactive protein (CRP), antithrombin (AT), factor VIIIc, activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), and aPTT plus activated protein C (APC) were analyzed on all samples. RESULT(S): D-Dimer concentration was significantly decreased at 6 and 12 months with injectable DMPA compared t degrees o baseline. There was also a modest decrease in aPTT. The CRP, AT, factor VIIIc, and aPTT + APC were not significantly altered by the use of DMPA.

CONCLUSION(S): In this preliminary study the decline in D-dimer represents a potentially beneficial change in coagulation function following the use of DMPA given SC or IM. A slight decrease in aPTT may reflect a prothrombotic tendency with this contraceptive, but in contrast with previous studies examining the effect of oral contraceptive this injectable progestin contraceptive did not demonstrate the adverse effect on markers for thrombosis risk.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of oral and transdermal contraceptives containing similar hormone formulations on vascular risk markers.

METHODS: We conducted a randomized, investigator-blinded, crossover, clinical trial with 24 healthy women, aged 18-35 years, who received 2 months of transdermal or oral contraceptive, 2 months washout, then 2 months of the alternative medication. The transdermal contraceptive contained 0.75 mg ethinyl estradiol and 6 mg norelgestromin. The oral contraceptive contained 35 mcg ethinyl estradiol and 250 mcg norgestimate. Blood samples taken before and after each treatment were analyzed in batch for D-dimer, von Willebrand factor, factor VIII, total and free protein S, antithrombin, fibrinogen, C-reactive protein, and normalized activated protein C sensitivity ratio (nAPCsr) determined with two thrombin generation-based assays, the alpha2macroglobulin-thrombin end point method (alpha2M-IIa) and calibrated automated thrombinography. Repeated measures analysis of variance was used for analysis.

RESULTS: For both contraceptives (transdermal, oral) there were significant declines in free (19%, 11%) and total protein S (19%, 13%) and antithrombin (13%, 10%); increases in fibrinogen (8%, 10%), C-reactive protein (220%, 292%), nAPCsr alpha2M-IIa (81%, 61%), and nAPCsr calibrated automated thrombinography (102%, 68%), all P

CONCLUSION: Oral and transdermal contraception with similar hormones had similar adverse effects on vascular risk markers. This suggests that this transdermal contraceptive has at least a similar thrombosis risk as its oral counterpart.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, www.clinicaltrials.gov, NCT00554632

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: I.

Oral contraceptives are classically given in a cyclic manner with 21 days of active pills followed by 7 days of placebo. In the past 4 years, new oral contraceptives have been introduced which either shorten the placebo time, lengthen the active pills (extended cycle), or provide active pills every day (continuous). These concepts are not new; extended and continuous pills were first studied in the 1960s and 1970s and have been provided in an off-label manner by gynecologists to treat menstrual disorders, such as menorrhagia and dysmenorrhea, and gynecologic disorders, such as endometriosis. Now that extended and continuous combined oral contraceptives are available for all patients, it is critical for providers to understand the physiology, dosing, side effects, and benefits of this form of oral contraceptive. This article reviews the history and the potential uses of the new continuous combined oral contraceptive.

The pathophysiology of obesity and type 2 diabetes in rodents and humans is characterized by low-grade inflammation in adipose tissue and liver. The CD40 receptor and its ligand, CD40L, initiate immune cell signaling promoting inflammation, but conflicting data on CD40L null mice confound its role in obesity-associated insulin resistance. Here we demonstrate that CD40 receptor deficient mice on a high fat diet display the expected decrease in hepatic cytokine levels, but paradoxically exhibit liver steatosis, insulin resistance and glucose intolerance compared to their age-matched wild type controls. Hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp studies also demonstrated insulin resistance in glucose utilization by the CD40 null mice compared to wild type mice. In contrast to liver, adipose tissue in CD40 deficient animals harbors elevated cytokine levels and infiltration of inflammatory cells, particularly macrophages and CD8+ effector T-cells. In addition, ex vivo explants of epididymal adipose tissue from CD40(-/-) mice display elevated basal and isoproterenol-stimulated lipolysis, suggesting a potential increase of lipid efflux from visceral fat to the liver. These findings reveal that, 1) CD40 null mice represent an unusual model of hepatic steatosis with reduced hepatic inflammation, and 2) CD40 unexpectedly functions in adipose tissue to attenuate its inflammation in obesity, thereby protecting against hepatic steatosis.

The p53 transcription factor regulates the expression of numerous genes whose products affect cell proliferation, senescence, cellular metabolism, apoptosis, and DNA repair. These p53-mediated effects can inhibit the growth of stressed or mutated cells and suppress tumorigenesis in the organism. However, the various growth-inhibitory properties of p53 must be kept in check in nondamaged cells in order to facilitate proper embryogenesis or the homeostatic maintenance of adult tissues. This requisite inhibition of p53 is performed primarily by the MDM oncoproteins, Mdm2 and MdmX. These p53-binding proteins limit p53 activity both in normal cells and in stressed cells seeking to promote resolution of their p53-stress response. Many mouse models bearing genetic alterations in Mdm2 or MdmX have been generated to explore the function and regulation of MDM-p53 signaling in development, in tissue homeostasis, in aging, and in cancer. These models not only have demonstrated a critical need for Mdm2 and MdmX in normal cell growth and in development but more recently have identified the MDM-p53 signaling axis as a key regulator of the cellular response to a wide variety of genetic or metabolic stresses. In this review, we discuss what has been learned from various studies of these Mdm2 and MdmX mouse models and highlight a few of the many important remaining questions.

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) are critical regulators of gene expression. To understand and predict the outcome of RBP-mediated regulation a comprehensive analysis of their interaction with RNA is necessary. The signal transduction and activation of RNA (STAR) family of RBPs includes developmental regulators and tumour suppressors such as Caenorhabditis elegans GLD-1, which is a key regulator of germ cell development. To obtain a comprehensive picture of GLD-1 interactions with the transcriptome, we identified GLD-1-associated mRNAs by RNA immunoprecipitation followed by microarray detection. Based on the computational analysis of these mRNAs we generated a predictive model, where GLD-1 association with mRNA is determined by the strength and number of 7-mer GLD-1-binding motifs (GBMs) within UTRs. We verified this quantitative model both in vitro, by competition GLD-1/GBM-binding experiments to determine relative affinity, and in vivo, by 'transplantation' experiments, where 'weak' and 'strong' GBMs imposed translational repression of increasing strength on a non-target mRNA. This study demonstrates that transcriptome-wide identification of RBP mRNA targets combined with quantitative computational analysis can generate highly predictive models of post-transcriptional regulatory networks.

In mice, Quaking (Qk) is required for myelin formation; in humans, it has been associated with psychiatric disease. QK regulates the stability, subcellular localization, and alternative splicing of several myelin-related transcripts, yet little is known about how QK governs these activities. Here, we show that QK enhances Hnrnpa1 mRNA stability by binding a conserved 3' UTR sequence with high affinity and specificity. A single nucleotide mutation in the binding site eliminates QK-dependent regulation, as does reduction of QK by RNAi. Analysis of exon expression across the transcriptome reveals that QK and hnRNP A1 regulate an overlapping subset of transcripts. Thus, a simple interpretation is that QK regulates a large set of oligodendrocyte precursor genes indirectly by increasing the intracellular concentration of hnRNP A1. Together, the data show that hnRNP A1 is an important QK target that contributes to its control of myelin gene expression.

Although the decision between stem cell self-renewal and differentiation has been linked to cell-cycle modifications, our understanding of cell-cycle regulation in stem cells is very limited. Here, we report that FBF/Pumilio, a conserved RNA-binding protein, promotes self-renewal of germline stem cells by repressing CKI-2(Cip/Kip), a Cyclin E/Cdk2 inhibitor. We have previously shown that repression of CYE-1 (Cyclin E) by another RNA-binding protein, GLD-1/Quaking, promotes germ cell differentiation. Together, these findings suggest that a post-transcriptional regulatory circuit involving FBF and GLD-1 controls the self-renewal versus differentiation decision in the germline by promoting high CYE-1/CDK-2 activity in stem cells, and inhibiting CYE-1/CDK-2 activity in differentiating cells.

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) coordinate cell fate specification and differentiation in a variety of systems. RNA regulation is critical during oocyte development and early embryogenesis, in which RBPs control expression from maternal mRNAs encoding key cell fate determinants. The Caenorhabditis elegans Notch homologue glp-1 coordinates germline progenitor cell proliferation and anterior fate specification in embryos. A network of sequence-specific RBPs is required to pattern GLP-1 translation. Here, we map the cis-regulatory elements that guide glp-1 regulation by the CCCH-type tandem zinc finger protein POS-1 and the STAR-domain protein GLD-1. Our results demonstrate that both proteins recognize the glp-1 3' untranslated region (UTR) through adjacent, overlapping binding sites and that POS-1 binding excludes GLD-1 binding. Both factors are required to repress glp-1 translation in the embryo, suggesting that they function in parallel regulatory pathways. It is intriguing that two equivalent POS-1-binding sites are present in the glp-1 3' UTR, but only one, which overlaps with a translational derepression element, is functional in vivo. We propose that POS-1 regulates glp-1 mRNA translation by blocking access of other RBPs to a key regulatory sequence.

BACKGROUND: Diagnosis and management of Amanita mushroom poisoning is a challenging problem for physicians across the United States. With 5902 mushroom exposures and two resultant deaths directly linked to Amanita ingestion in 2009, it is difficult for physicians to determine which patients are at risk for lethal toxicity. Identification of amatoxin poisoning can prove to be difficult due to delay in onset of symptoms and difficulty with identification of mushrooms. Consequently, it is difficult for the Emergency Physician to determine proper disposition. Further, treatment options are controversial.

OBJECTIVES: To review current data to help health care providers effectively identify and treat potentially deadly Amanita mushroom ingestions.

CASE REPORTS: We present two cases of Amanita mushroom ingestion in the northeastern United States treated with N-acetylcysteine, high-dose penicillin, cimetidine, and silibinin, a semi-purified fraction of milk thistle-derived silymarin, as part of their treatment regimen. The mushroom species was identified by a consultant as Amanita Ocreata.

CONCLUSIONS: We present the successful treatment of 2 patients who ingested what we believe to be an Amanita species never before identified in the northeastern United States.

Striking increases in the abuse of opioids have expanded the need for pharmacotherapeutic interventions. The obstacles that confront effective treatment of opioid addiction - shortage of treatment professionals, stigma associated with treatment and the ability to maintain abstinence - have led to increased interest in alternative treatment strategies among both treatment providers and patients alike. Herbal products for opioid addiction and withdrawal, such as kratom and specific Chinese herbal medications such as WeiniCom, can complement existing treatments. Unfortunately, herbal treatments, while offering some advantages over existing evidence-based pharmacotherapies, have poorly described pharmacokinetics, a lack of supportive data derived from well controlled clinical trials, and severe toxicity, the cause for which remains poorly defined. Herbal products, therefore, require greater additional testing in rigorous clinical trials before they can expect widespread acceptance in the management of opioid addiction.

The bacterial lipopolysaccharide endotoxin induces a catabolic response characterized by resistance to multiple anabolic hormones. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of endotoxin on the GH signaling pathway in rat liver in vivo. After the iv injection of Escherichia coli endotoxin (1 mg/kg), there was a progressive decrease in liver STAT5 (signal transducer and activator of transcription-5) tyrosine phosphorylation in response to GH (40% decrease 6 h after endotoxin), which occurred in the absence of a change in abundance of the STAT5 protein. Endotoxin resulted in a rapid 40-fold increase in liver Janus family kinase-2 (JAK2) messenger RNA, followed by a 2-fold increase in JAK2 protein abundance. This was associated with a 50% decrease in phosphorylated/total JAK2 after GH stimulation. GH receptor abundance was unchanged, suggesting a postreceptor site of endotoxin-induced GH resistance. Rat complementary DNAs for three members of the suppressor of cytokine signaling gene family were cloned [cytokine-inducible sequence (CIS), suppressor of cytokine signaling-2 (SOCS-2), and SOCS-3] and, using these probes, messenger RNAs for SOCS-3 and CIS were shown to be increased 10- and 4-fold above control values, respectively, 2 h after endotoxin infusion. The finding of endotoxin inhibition of in vivo STAT5 tyrosine phosphorylation in response to a supramaximal dose of GH in the absence of a change in GH receptor abundance or total GH-stimulated JAK2 tyrosine phosphorylation provides the first demonstration of acquired postreceptor GH resistance. We hypothesize that this may occur through a specificity-spillover mechanism involving the induction of SOCS genes by cytokines released in response to endotoxin and subsequent SOCS inhibition of GH signaling.